Morphology, Syntax, and the Wonder of Language

Morphemes are minimal units of meaning,  but what a difference they make. The Greek morpheme δελφύς/Δελφός means "womb." However, if one prefixes an alpha to it, the word refers to a brother. Conversely, ἄτομος contains an alpha-privative so that the prefix negates the morpheme to produce the meaning, "uncuttable" or "indivisible," etc. The same phenomenon occurs in Latin with the morpheme utilis. By simply adding in to this adnominal, a "useful" tool becomes a "useless" one. These shifts in morphological signification take place due to the derivational feature of morphology.

On the other hand, syntax refers to word order or the architecture of linguistic signs. Cambridge Dictionary defines syntax as "the grammatical arrangement of words in a sentence." The importance of syntax depends on the extent of lingual inflection that a language possesses, yet this does not mean that syntax goes out the window when languages are less inflected with respect to morphology: syntax is still important whether one speaks English, German, French or Spanish.

For example, English, Greek, Latin and other languages distinguish between grammatical subjects and objects (e.g., "The dog bit the man") but the latter tongues indicate which word is the subject or object by means of morphological inflections. For example, in the Latin sentence canis mordet hominem, one knows which word is subject primarily through recognizing morphemic inflections such that canis is the subject and hominem is the direct object of mordet. Furthermore, Latin and Greek display syntactic patterns that are recurrent (subject--verb-object), so syntax is important even in highly inflected languages.

Language is a fascinating wonder that is unique to human beings: it is "one of the skills that separates humans from the rest of the animal kingdom" (Pat Kuhl qtd. in Restak 230). The human ability to utter meaningful sentences is another indication that we are made in a wonderful and awe-inspiring way (Psalm 139:14).

Further Reading:

Fasold, Ralph W., and Jeff Connor-Linton, eds. 2006. An Introduction to Language and Linguistics. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Restak, Richard. The Mind. New York: Bantam, 1988.

https://petaa.edu.au/litportal/litportal/Resources-for-Curriculum/Upper-primary/Spelling/Morphemic-awareness-upper.aspx

1 Corinthians 10:18: A Brief Syntactical Discussion

βλέπετε τὸν Ἰσραὴλ κατὰ σάρκα· οὐχ οἱ ἐσθίοντες τὰς θυσίας κοινωνοὶ τοῦ θυσιαστηρίου εἰσίν (1 Corinthians 10:18-Nestle 1904) It seems that κοινωνοὶ τοῦ θυσιαστηρίου is a genitive of association (Compare Rom. 8:17). Furthermore, the substantival phrase οἱ ἐσθίοντες is the subject here rather than θυσιαστήριον. Additionally, the context suggests that the eater/one approaching the altar consumes the meat, not the altar per se (1 Cor. 10:16-17). For a similar use of altar terminology, see Heb. 13:10. Roy E. Ciampa and Brian S. Rosner (The First Letter to the Corinthians, PNTC Series):

By “participating in the altar” Paul evidently means that those eating the meal from the food taken from the altar are counted as those who offered the worship through the sacrifice that was offered there (and expect to benefit from the efficacy of that offering). The implication for eating food offered to idols is clear. Paul implies that to knowingly eat food that has been clearly identified as such makes one a willing participant of the offering from which it was taken. Such is understood to be the case in Christian participation in the Lord’s Supper and in the offerings made at the temple in Jerusalem as well, and it would be only reasonable to assume that it applies to food offered to idols also. That very implication brings Paul back to the issue of the significance of idols and idol food, an issue that he touched on in 8:4, 7 and that he addresses again in the following verses.

Ephesians 5:19 (Morphosyntax)

Greek (SBLGNT): λαλοῦντες [a]ἑαυτοῖς ψαλμοῖς καὶ ὕμνοις καὶ ᾠδαῖς πνευματικαῖς, ᾄδοντες καὶ [b]ψάλλοντες τῇ καρδίᾳ ὑμῶν τῷ κυρίῳ,

1. ΠΡΟΣ ΕΦΕΣΙΟΥΣ 5:19 ἑαυτοῖς WH Treg RP ] + ἐν NIV
2. ΠΡΟΣ ΕΦΕΣΙΟΥΣ 5:19 ψάλλοντες WH NIV ] + ἐν Treg RP
   
   

CSB: "speaking to one another in psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs, singing and making music with your heart to the Lord,"

ESV: "addressing one another in psalms and hymns and spiritual songs, singing and making melody to the Lord with your heart,"

Syntax: λαλοῦντες is the nominative plural masculine present active participle of λαλέω. Benjamin Merkle thinks it functions adverbially here to communicate result in conjunction with the four participles that follow (Ephesians in the EGGNT Series). Paul is apparently detailing what results when a Christian is filled with the holy spirit (see Ephesians 5:18 and its use of πληροῦσθε).

Clinton Arnold explains that scholars often prefer to construe the grammar of Ephesians 5:19 like Merkle does, but Arnold gives other possibilities: a) the participle has an imperatival sense, b) it is a participle of attendant circumstance, c) the participle expresses means. Arnold chooses to take the participle as expressive of means. 

ἑαυτοῖς is a reflexive pronoun doubling as a reciprocal pronoun, which is not unusual, and it's a dative of advantage (dativus commodi). See Merkle. 

ψαλμοῖς καὶ ὕμνοις καὶ ᾠδαῖς πνευματικαῖς-Does the last word here modify just ᾠδαῖς or all three nouns? And in what sense is the music "spiritual"?

ᾄδοντες καὶ ψάλλοντες-Andrew T. Lincoln offers this explanation (Ephesians in the WBC Series): "The second participial clause builds up the sentence in the writer’s characteristic style by employing the verbal forms of two of the previous nouns— ᾠδή, 'song,' and ψαλμός, 'psalm.' Although its original meaning involved plucking a stringed instrument, ψάλλω here means to make music by singing (cf. also 1 Cor 14:15; Jas 5:13), so that there is no reference in this verse to instrumental accompaniment (cf. the discussion in BAGD 891; pace Barth, 584)."

Arnold concurs with Lincoln that ψάλλοντες is not referring to instrumental accompaniment; Lincoln likewise reckons that Christ Jesus is the referent of the phrase, τῷ κυρίῳ, which is apparently a dative indirect object of ᾄδοντες and ψάλλοντες. Cf. Ephesians 5:17; Revelation 5:9. 

τῇ καρδίᾳ ὑμῶν-a dative of means and possessive genitive occur here. See William J. Larkin, Ephesians: A Handbook on the Greek Text, page 126.

Revelation 8:1-2 and the Seven Angels

Greek: Καὶ ὅταν ἤνοιξεν τὴν σφραγῖδα τὴν ἑβδόμην, ἐγένετο σιγὴ ἐν τῷ οὐρανῷ ὡς ἡμιώριον. καὶ εἶδον τοὺς ἑπτὰ ἀγγέλους οἳ ἐνώπιον τοῦ θεοῦ ἑστήκασιν, καὶ ἐδόθησαν αὐτοῖς ἑπτὰ σάλπιγγες.

Buist Fanning III speaks of a "minor variation" here with some texts reading ὅτε, a reading that Stephen Smalley calls better attested but he indicates the lectio might not be original; other texts read ὅταν. Fanning thinks the two particles are overlapping relations in this context; he deems it more likely that scribes would have changed ὅταν to ὅτε to make it harmonize with chapter 6 of Revelation. See Fanning III, Revelation, page 279. Compare J.K. Elliott, "Revelations from the apparatus criticus of the Book of Revelation: How Textual Criticism Can Help Historians," page 8.

G.K. Beale (The Book of Revelation): 

Some mss. have οτε (“when”; so  א052 M) instead of ὅταν (“whenever”). The latter is preferable because of its better witnesses (A C 1006 1611 1841) and as the harder reading, because it usually is used to refer to repeated actions and not definite action (it is often translated “whenever”). Consequently, ὅτε is what a scribe would have expected here for the definite past reference to the opening of the seal.226 Furthermore, ὅτε is used to introduce the first six seals. Some grammarians view ὅταν as suggesting a repeated act of opening the seal,227 although this is unlikely because of the uses of ὅτε in 6:1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 12.228 Furthermore, ὅταν refers to a definite future action in 18:9 and possibly in 4:9. Consequently, 8:1 is conditional in form but definite in force.

ἤνοιξεν τὴν σφραγῖδα τὴν ἑβδόμην-It is generally thought to be the Lamb per the context, who opens the seventh seal. The verb ἤνοιξεν is aorist active indicative third person singular of ἀνοίγω ("I open"); the agent of the verb is not clear from the verbal form alone, but the Lamb appears to be the implied actor of the verb.

ἐγένετο σιγὴ ἐν τῷ οὐρανῷ ὡς ἡμιώριον-Scholars have essayed many suggestions about why silence in heaven occurs for about half an hour, yet it's hard to be too definitive about the reason for silence in heaven. Leon Morris offers these thoughts (Tyndale Commentary on Revelation):

The sixth seal was opened as far back as 6:12, so there has been quite an interval. At the opening of the seventh there was silence in heaven for about half an hour. Clearly it was a solemn and impressive moment. It is possible that the silence is connected with the offering of the prayers of the saints (vv. 3–4, so Beasley-Murray) just as in 7:3 certain plagues were held back until the servants of God were sealed. The saints appear insignificant to men at large. But in the sight of God they matter. Even great cataclysms are held back while they pray. And the praises of angels give way to silence so that the saints may be heard. It is also possible that we should think of the silence as resulting from a sense of awe at the presence of God (cf. Hab. 2:20). He is about to launch severe judgments on people. All heaven remains silent.

καὶ εἶδον τοὺς ἑπτὰ ἀγγέλους οἳ ἐνώπιον τοῦ θεοῦ ἑστήκασιν-Morris proffers that John has specific angels in mind since he employs τοὺς, and then Morris recalls the seven angels mentioned in pseudepigraphal literature: Uriel, Raphael, Raguel, Michael, Saraqael, Gabriel and Remiel. However, does Revelation truly have these specific angels in mind when it speaks of "the seven angels"?

Robert H. Mounce suggests (The Book of Revelation): "Whatever the connection may be between the seven trumpet-angels of John’s vision and the seven archangels of Jewish apocalyptic, their role in the book of Revelation is to announce a series of plagues that is to fall upon the earth and its inhabitants. It is possible that they are also the seven angels who later pour out the seven bowls of the wrath of God (15:1, 6-8; 16:1; 17:1; 21:9)."

These seven angels stand before God: ἑστήκασιν is perfect active indicative third person plural of ἵστημι, but Grant R. Osborne insists (Revelation, BECNT): "As noted before (3:20; 5:6; 7:1, 9), the perfect of ἵστημι has present force, and so connotes the idea of being continually attendant to the enthroned God."

For more on the perfect morphology of ἵστημι and its ostensibly present force, see David L. Mathewson, Verbal Aspect in the Book of Revelation, pages 92, 101-103. Regarding the expression, ἐνώπιον τοῦ θεοῦ, compare Revelation 3:5; 4:5-6, 10; 5:8; 7:9, 11, 15; 8:3-4; 9:13; 11:4, et al.

ἐδόθησαν is aorist passive indicative third person plural of δίδωμι.

Hebrews 2:4 (Morphosyntax)

Greek (WH): συνεπιμαρτυροῦντος τοῦ θεοῦ σημείοις τε καὶ τέρασιν καὶ ποικίλαις δυνάμεσιν καὶ πνεύματος ἁγίου μερισμοῖς κατὰ τὴν αὐτοῦ θέλησιν

CSB: "At the same time, God also testified by signs and wonders, various miracles, and distributions of gifts from the Holy Spirit according to his will."

James Moffatt NT: "while God corroborated their testimony with signs and wonders and a variety of miraculous powers, distributing the holy Spirit as it pleased him."

This verse begins with a word that morphologically is present active participle genitive singular masculine (συνεπιμαρτυροῦντος). William L. Lane (Hebrews 1-8, WB Commentary) states that συνεπιμαρτυρέω is used regularly in nonbiblical Greek, but the LXX does not employ the word and its only GNT occurrence is Heb. 2:4. Lane proffers the meaning, “to bear witness at the same time." Bill Mounce supplies these definitions: "to join in according testimony; to support by testimony, to confirm, sanction." One other point about the present participle is that Lane thinks it connotes ongoing action that continued to be shown in the early Christian community's daily life.

συνεπιμαρτυροῦντος τοῦ θεοῦ is a genitive absolute (A.T. Robertson, Word Pictures in the New Testament). ESV translates: "while God also bore witness"; NWT 2013: "while God joined in bearing witness." Dana Harris (Hebrews) relates that συνεπιμαρτυρέω is legal nomenclature and the participle may logically correlate with ἐβεβαιώθη in Hebrews 2:3 even if the correlation is not strictly grammatical: moreover, the participle in the genitive absolute construction logically depends on ἐβεβαιώθη.

The language, σημείοις τε καὶ τέρασιν καὶ ποικίλαις δυνάμεσιν emphasizes divine wonders, the exhibited power of God, and "the rich variety of divine activity." See Paul Ellingworth, The Epistle to the Hebrews, page 142. Additionally, Harris observes that one finds a string of instrumental datives here with ποικίλαις modifying δυνάμεσιν.

The writer of Hebrews has a propensity for the correlative τε καὶ (see Hebrews 4:12; 5:1,7,14; 8:3); καὶ πνεύματος ἁγίου μερισμοῖς κατὰ τὴν αὐτοῦ θέλησιν-The Greek μερισμός occurs twice in the GNT (Hebrews 2:4; 4:12); the word is best understood in terms of distribution for Heb. 2:4, contra Henry Alford.

Both Paul Ellingworth and Harold Attridge consider πνεύματος ἁγίου to be an objective genitive, and Attridge adds (Hebrews, 67-68) that the "spirit" in this verse:

refers not to a divine hypostasis, but to an eschatological gift of God's power and life.68 Hebrews will describe the "holy spirit" as speaking through the scriptures.69 That personification involves a traditional paraphrase for referring to the divine origin of scripture.

The Greek text reads, καὶ πνεύματος ἁγίου μερισμοῖς ("and distributions of holy spirit"), but commentators normally interpret the "distributions" (μερισμοῖς) to be gifts imparted through/by the holy spirit--it is not the holy spirit itself that is being distributed. Luke T. Johnson explains (Hebrews, page 89):

The expression “distributions of the Holy Spirit according to his will,” in turn, most clearly echoes Paul’s language in 1 Cor 12:11. Speaking of the “variety of gifts” (diaireseis charismaton), Paul says, “all these are activated by the one and same Spirit who allots to each one individually just as the Spirit chooses.”

On the other hand, see James Moffatt, The Epistle to the Hebrews, page 20. Note his translation supra.

Amplified Bible:  "[and besides this evidence] God also testifying with them [confirming the message of salvation], both by signs and wonders and by various miracles [carried out by Jesus and the apostles] and by [granting to believers the] gifts of the Holy Spirit according to His own will."

κατὰ τὴν αὐτοῦ θέλησιν is likely a reference to God per the context (i.e., God's will); θέλησιν is accusative singular feminine and the object of κατὰ. See Harris, Hebrews. The suffix -σιν that occurs three times in Heb. 2:4 is probably for rhetorical effect, according to Harris.

While I do not agree with Daniel Wallace's Trinitarian theology, his article here is useful in some ways: https://bible.org/article/hebrews-23-4-and-sign-gifts

How the Genitive Case Works in Greek

The genitive case delimits or describes things. As William D. Chamberlain explains: "The genitive case, hH GENNHTIKH PTWSIS (Lat. CASUS GENITIVUS), is primarily the 'describing' case. Its function is adjectival. In fact, comparative grammar shows that this usage is older than the adjective" (An Exegetical Grammar of the Greek New Testament, p. 29).

Daniel B. Wallace (Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics, pp. 78-88) relates that in the case of the attributive genitive, "The genitive substantive specifies an attribute or innate quality of the head substantive. It is similar to a simple adjective in its semantic force, though more emphatic: it 'expresses quality like an adjective indeed, but with more sharpness and distinctness.' "

The last part of that quote is taken from A.T. Robertson's "big grammar."

As Wallace points out, the genitive itself (whether possessive or descriptive, etc.) is grammatically substantival, but semantically adjectival; that is, the genitive functions like an adjective, although it is formally a substantive (i.e., a noun case).

See https://dcc.dickinson.edu/grammar/goodell/genitive

Compare J.H. Greenlees, "The Genitive Case in the New Testament." The Asbury Seminarian: Vol. 5: No. 3, p. 108-109.

https://place.asburyseminary.edu/asburyjournal/vol5/iss3/10/

One of My Favorite Scriptures: 1 Corinthians 2:10

Greek (WH): ἡμῖν γὰρ ἀπεκάλυψεν ὁ θεὸς διὰ τοῦ πνεύματος, τὸ γὰρ πνεῦμα πάντα ἐραυνᾷ, καὶ τὰ βάθη τοῦ θεοῦ.

(THGNT): Ἡμῖν δὲ ἀπεκάλυψεν ὁ θεὸς διὰ τοῦ πνεύματος· τὸ γὰρ πνεῦμα πάντα ἐραυνᾷ, καὶ τὰ βάθη τοῦ θεοῦ.

According to WH, the verse logically begins with the postpostive γὰρ. Hans Conzelmann states that ἡμῖν (a dative plural first-person pronoun of ἡμεῖς) is "emphatic" and strengthened by γὰρ (First Corinthians, page 65), but others prefer δὲ.

The word ἀπεκάλυψεν is from ἀποκαλύπτω, a verb that occurs twenty-six times in the GNT: it is aorist active indicative third-person singular ("revealed," "uncovered" or "disclosed"). The subject of this action is ὁ θεὸς.

διὰ τοῦ πνεύματος-God reveals things to Paul and the Corinthians and, by extension, to the anointed servants of Jehovah today as his holy spirit works powerfully on the anointed men taking the lead in his organization (Acts 20:28). Conzelmann intimates that the "spirit" mentioned here could be the human spirit of a so-called "pneumatic." However, Raymond F. Collins writes (First Corinthians, page 132):

 

τὸ γὰρ πνεῦμα πάντα ἐραυνᾷ-Garner and Arnold consider γὰρ to be "explanatory"; the verb ἐραυνάω occurs six times in the GNT. In this passage, the verbal form is present active indicative third-person singular. Compare Proverbs 20:27; John 5:39; Romans 8:27; 1 Peter 1:11; Revelation 2:23.

The holy spirit of God searches "all things" (πάντα), but in what sense? This is likely by acting on the person who is anointed with the spirit of God. Again, the Bible speaks about those taking the lead being appointed by holy spirit and shepherding the flock of God (1 Peter 5:1-4). The reference to "all things" here appears to be relative, not absolute.

καὶ τὰ βάθη τοῦ θεοῦ-Garner and Arnold think καὶ in this part of the verse is "intensive"; the "deep things of God" are probably the depths of God's wisdom, given the contents of 1 Corinthians 2:6-8. These would include God's eternal purpose formed through the Lord Christ Jesus (Ephesians 3:11). τὰ βάθη is accusative plural neuter; compare Romans 11:33.